History of Iran

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Ghaznavid art takes its name from the dynasty founded by the Turkish sultan Sabuktagin, whose rulers governed from Ghazni (in what is now Afghanistan). Craftsmen and artists were attracted from the conquered lands, primarily from the lands of the Islamic east, to beautify the capital.
Unlike the Samanids, their predecessors the Ghaznavids did not go so far as to proclaim themselves the descendants of the Sassanians (the memory of their Turkish origin was too fresh), but they spoke Persian, celebrated pre-Islamic festivals, and promoted neo-Persian letters.
The fact that elements foreign to Islam and Persia were also present at Ghazni poses the question of the extent of their influence on Ghaznavid art. Ghazni was the meeting ground between Moslem and Indian worlds. Indian monuments certainly left an impression on the conquerors, and there were numerous groups of Indian craftsmen at Ghazni; however, there is insufficient documentation to indicate an Indian contribution to Ghaznavid art.

Ghaznavid architecture provided one of the best examples of how decoration was considered to be as important as the structure itself. As well as providing the structure, brickwork was used to provide geometric patterns. Marble was used extensively in Ghazni and virtually surpassed stucco. Sources say that it was used for the facings of the mosque "Bride of the Sky", whose splendour rivaled that of the mosque at Damascus.

However, the Ghaznavid's use of sun-dried bricks combined with the severe climatic frosts resulted in the ruin of most of these buildings.

In the palace of Mas'ud III, the design was greatly enriched by the insertion of molded terra-cotta tiles, as well as what appears to be ceramic plaques decorated in relieves with figures of wild beasts, birds, and flowers, all glazed over in green, brown and yellow enamel. Today only fragments have been found in the ruins, and they are preserved in the Kabul museum.

An innovation of great importance, because it was to become a classic formula in Persian architecture, is the so- called 'cruciform' mosque plan, a court with four iwans. This formula was widely adopted not only in mosques, but also in the construction of madrasas, the schools in which the Koran was taught.

Like the Abbasids, sources suggest that the use of the human figure in wall paintings was widespread in Ghaznavid buildings.
The only remaining frescoes, found in the palace at Lashkari Bazaar show a row of 44 personages (the ruins of two pillars suggest that the original total may have been 70) wearing tunics, of which only the neck is visible and a long cloak fastened at the left. The bodies are depicted frontally and the feet in profile. Similarities can be drawn to that of Persepolis or Susa where it was customary to provide pictures of the men who guarded the palace.

Turkish elements had an influence on Ghaznavid painting; however, this influence is not limited to Ghaznavid art, but extends to all Persian Islamic painting. For example there are similarities between paintings (dated 1037) in Duvazdah Imam at Yazd in Iran and those paintings at Bezeklik and Toyuk.

The bas relieves found at Ghazni show scenes of court life (courtiers, dancers...), hunting scenes (horsemen battling a lion...) etc. The hunting scenes are similar to that of a Sassanian theme; however they are distinguished by their refinement of drawing and fluidity of movement.

Ghaznavid art produced some of the most notable examples of calligraphy in Islamic art. The Kufic script was very popular, and achieved its most elegant form during the reign of Ibrahim (1059-99). This script with ornamental border remained the fashion for centuries in various Persian provinces

Little is known of Ghaznavid art to fully appraise this heritage, and its historical importance consists principally in the legacy that it transmitted to the Seljuks.



"Minaret of Mas'ud III"
Two details of the brick decoration, Ghazni, 11th century


Lashkari Bazaar, the palace, 11th century


Ghazni, Rauza Antiquary
large decorative marble slab sculptured on both sides,
11th century

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Arts of the Saljuks
The Seljuk period in the history of art and architecture extends for approximately two centuries from the Seljuk conquest in the second quarter of 11th century to the establishment of the Ilkhan dynasty in the second quarter of the 13th century. During this period, the centre of power within the Islamic world shifted from the Arab territories to Anatolia and Iran, with the traditional centres now residing in the Seljuk capitals - Merv, Nishapur, Rayy and Isfahan.
In spite of the Turkish invaders, this era of Persian revival, beginning with the publication of Firdawsi's "Shah-namah", constitutes for Persia a period of intensively creative artistic development. The sheer productivity of these centuries in the visual arts, in comparison with the art from earlier centuries represents a quantum leap forward.
The importance of Seljuk art is that it established a dominant position in Iran and determined the future development of art in the Iranian world for centuries. The stylistic innovations introduced by the Iranian architects of this period were, in fact to have vast repercussions, from India to Asia Minor. However, there is a strong overlap between Seljuk art and the stylistic groupings of the Buwayhids, Ghaznavids, etc.
In many cases the artists of the Seljuk period consolidated, and indeed at times perfected, forms and ideas that had long been known. It must be remembered that the picture is not as clear as it should be, with the massive scale of illegal excavations in Iran over the past hundred years.
The characteristic feature of the buildings of this period, is the decorative use of un-plastered bricks. The earlier use of stucco facings on the outer walls, as well as on the inside (to conceal the inferiority of the building material) was discontinued, although it reappeared later.

With the establishment of the Seljuk Turks (1055-1256) a distinctive form of mosque was introduced. Its most striking feature is the vaulted niche or iwan which, had figured prominently in the Sassanian palaces and had been known even in the Parthian period. In this so-called 'cruciform' mosque plan, an iwan is introduced into each of the four enclosing walls of the court (See Ghaznavid Art). Such a plan was adopted for the rebuilding of the Great Mosque of Isfahan in 1121 and was widely used in Persia until recent times. A notable example is the Masjid-i-shah or Royal Mosque founded by Shah Abbas at Isfahan in 1612 and completed in 1630.
Figure decoration appeared on Seljuk pottery from the mid 12th century onwards. At first the decoration was carved or moulded while the glaze was monochrome, though on the lakabi (painting) carved wares several colours were used. Sometimes decoration was applied onto the pot, painted in black slip under a clear or coloured glaze to create a silhouette effect. Large birds, animals and fabulous creatures form the bulk of the imagery, though on the silhouette ware human figures appear. The silhouette figures often stand-alone though it is usual for human and animal forms, whenever they occur, to be superimposed on a foliage background.

The last quarter of the 12th century saw the creation of the splendid and elaborate minai(enamel) ceramics, produced by means of a double-firing technique to set the varnish over the enamel. This type of ware, which originated in Rayy, Kashan and perhaps Saveh displays ornamental detail similar to luster-painted ware of Kashan. Some compositions depict battle scenes or episodes drawn from the Shah-namah.

Seljuk miniatures, of which few traces remain, because of the widespread destruction by the Mongol invasions, must also have been extremely ornate, like other art forms of the period, and certainly must have displayed features similar to pottery painting. The principle centre for book painting in the 12th and 13th centuries was Iraq, but this painting had a marked Iranian influence. Several fine examples of Seljuk Korans have survived, and they are notable for their magnificent painting on the cover often of pronounced geometric character, with the Kufic script taking the prime role.

During the Seljuk period metalwork was particularly widespread with extremely high levels of workmanship. Bronze was by far the most widely used metal during the 11th and 12th centuries (brass being a later addition). Artifacts were cast, engraved, sometimes inlaid with silver or copper or executed in openwork, and in some cases even graced with enamel decorations. In the 12th century the techniques of repousse and engraving was added to that of inlaying bronze or brass with gold, silver, copper, and niello.
A remarkable example is the bronze bucket inlaid with silver and copper now preserved in the Hermitage Museum, Leningrad. According to its inscription it was made at Herat in 1163

A wide range of objects were produced at the time such as; perfume burners usually in the shape of animals, mirrors, candlesticks, etc and it seems likely that some of the best craftsmen traveled widely to execute commissions with fine pieces shipped over long distances.
The Seljuk period was undoubtedly one of the most intensively creative periods in the history of the Islamic world. It displayed splendid achievements in every artistic field, with subtle differences from one region to the next

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Seljuk minaret of the mosque at Damghan, Iran. The decorative effect achieved by the use of recessed bricks, forming highly original rhythms and geometric patterns, is characteristic of this 11th century Persian art.



Pomp and circumstance, Turkish style.
Stucco relief from Rayy; late 12th century. It depicts the
enthroned Seljuk sultan Tughril II (1194) surrounded by
his officers. Beneath his feet is written: "the victotious,
just king" and in the panel above are his titles.


Ceramic bowl of the minai type from Kashan, Iran, dated 1187.
Polychrome pottery such as this became very popular in Iran during the 12th and early 13th
centuries. As on much pottery of this type, the drawing is rapidly executed but extremely
accomplished. The subject is not clear, though winged genii are usually shown in the
company of royal personages.


Koran, Iran 11th -12th century.
This type of script is usually associated with the Seljuks of Iran and is almost invariably written over a composite foliate background. The diacritical points appear as block dots and the vowels are indicated in red. In some manuscripts, green dots indicate primary variant readings while yellow and blue ones represent specific orthographic elements or sounds or secondary or tertiary variants of the text.
This example illustrated one of the most important advantages of the Arabic script: letters can be extended vertically or horizontally without the overall balance being impaired.



Bronze bucket or kettle, Herat, Iran, dated 1163.
Height 17.5 in. The bronze surface is richly inlaid with figurative imagery
in gold, silver and copper. The importance of representational art in this
period is indicated by its intrusion into the calligraphy in the upper and
lower registers. Although the theme of the figure decorations are entirely
courtly, the bucket was made for a merchant.


Luxury tableware.
Silver rose-water sprinkler with cap; repousse and chased, with niello decoration and guilding. The very few pieces of Seljuk metalwork in silver point to a serious shortage of that metal.

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The Mongol Invasions
The Ilkhans and The Timurids

The Mongol conquest of the Persian world brought with it terrible destruction and large-scale massacres. In 1219, Genghis Khan's army attacked the state of Khwarezm, capturing Transoxiana, Samarkand (1220) and Khorassan (1221), while a detachment penetrated as far as Azerbaijan. In 1256, a second expedition led by Hulagu (1217-1265), Genghis Khan's grandson, subdued the whole of Persia. In 1258, Baghdad was captured and the caliph put to death, bringing the Abbasid Caliphate rule to an end. Hulagu's successors, who took the title of il-Khan, established their capital at Tabriz.

The death of Sultan Abu Said in 1335 lead to the division of the Mongol Empire in Persia. Once again, local chiefs took advantage of this to declare themselves independent: a Persian Shi'ite dynasty, the Sardebarians (1337-1381), settled in the northwestern part of Khorassan while the Mozzafferids (1340-1392) took control of the south from Fars to Kerman. But these dynasties were short-lived as a third invasion, this time by the Turko-Mongol nomads lead by Tamerlane, swept across the region. The east of Iran fell in 1380, and Azerbaijan, Iraq and Fars a few years later.

Tamerlane (Timurid dynasty) dominated all of Persia from 1387. His invasion of Isfahan alone, led to more than 70,000 deaths where the heads of his victims were heaped up into pyramids. Nevertheless, after having established his capital at Samarkand, he drew artists, calligraphers, writers, philosophers, astronomers and mathematicians, from all parts of his empire, the majority of whom came from Shiraz and Isfahan.
Thus, ironically, this ruthless warrior and appalling killer initiated a true civilization in the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Herat, Balkh and Mashad. In the time of Shah Rukh (1405-1447) and Oleg Begh the whole of Persia became covered with admirable monuments and the art of miniature reached its peak at Shiraz and Herat.


The doorway into the hall of Uldjaitu in the Friday Mosque, Isfahan; decorated with Timurid mosaics

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The Mongol invasions in the 13th century changed life in Iran radically and permanently. Genghis Khan's invasion in the 1220s, destroyed lives and property in north-eastern Iran on a grand scale. In 1258 Hulagu Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson completed the conquest of Iran, and consolidated his control over Iraq, Iran and much of Anatolia. With his capital in Maragha in north-western Iran, he founded the Ilkhanid kingdom, nominally subject to the great Khan, Qubilai, ruler of China and Mongolia.

The Ilkhan dynasty, lasting from 1251 to 1335, represents in Persian art (paintings, ceramics and metalwork) the period of greatest Far Eastern influence. The later Ilkhanids tried to repair some of the destruction caused by their devastating invasion in the early 13th century, by building new cities and employing native officials to administer the country.

Ilkhanid architecture did not constitute a new style in its time, but continued the Seljuk plans and techniques. Seljuk double dome architecture was very popular under the Ilkhans and decorative brick displays while not completely abandoned, gave way to an ever-growing use of glazed ceramics. In Iran, large interior and exterior surfaces were first covered with great faience mosaics ('tile mosaic') of geometric, floral and calligraphic motifs in the 13th century.

The technique was probably re-imported at the time from Asia Minor, where the Persian artists had fled before the Mongol invasion. One of the first Iranian monuments with large areas of faience mosaics is the Mausoleum of Oljeitu at Sultaniya.

As far as ceramics are concerned, all activity at Rayy ceased following the Mongol destruction in 1220, but Kashan pottery recovered immediately from the hardships suffered in 1224. Tiles were widely used both in architectural decoration and in mihrab1, as in the Imamzada Yahya of Varamin, which has a mihrab dating back to c. 1265, bearing the signature of the famous Kashan potter Ali ibn-Muhammad ibn Ali Tahir. These were called kashi after their production centre in Kashan.

There are two types of pottery most associated with the Ilkhans, one is "Sultanabad" ware (whose name was taken from where the first pieces were discovered in the Sultanabad region) and the other "Lajvardina" (a simple successor to the minai technique). Gold over-painting set against a deep royal blue glaze makes Lajvardina ware one of the most spectacular ever produced in Persia.

In contrast to this, Sultanabad ware is heavily potted and makes frequent use of grey slip with thick outlines, while another type displays black painting under a turquoise glaze. The drawing is of indifferent quality, but the ware as a whole has a special interest as a classic example of the way Chinese motifs invaded the Persian ceramic tradition.
Persian miniature painting began in the Mongol period at the beginning of the 13th century, when Persian painters were exposed to Chinese art, and Chinese painters worked at the Ilkhan courts in Iran. It is not known whether Persian artists went to China before the 15th century; but it is certain that Chinese artists, imported by the Mongol rulers, went to Iran, like those whom Arghun used to paint the walls of Buddhist temples. Unfortunately, the works of these artists as well as the whole collection of secular mural paintings are lost.
Miniature painting, of a high artistic level, was the only form of painting to survive from this period. In Ilkhanid miniatures, the human figure, which had previously been depicted in stocky and stereotyped fashion, was now shown more gracefully with truer proportions; drapery folds gave the impression of depth. Animals were observed more carefully than before and lost their decorative rigidity, mountains lost their smooth appearance and skies were enlivened by typically curly white clouds with twisted garland shapes. These influences progressively fused with Iranian paintings and were finally assimilated into new forms. The major centre of Ilkhan painting was Tabriz.

Some of the effects of Chinese influence can be seen in the painting of Bahram Gur's Battle with the Dragon from the famous Demotte "Shah-namah" (The Book of Kings), illustrated in Tabriz in the second quarter of the 14th century. The mountains and landscape details are of Far Eastern origin as of course is the dragon with which the hero is locked in combat. By using the frame as a window and placing the hero with his back to the reader, the artist creates the impression that the event is actually taking place before our eyes.
Less obvious, but more important, is the vague undefined relationship of immediate foreground to distant background, and the abrupt cutting off of the composition on all sides. Most of the miniatures of the Demotte Shah-namah are to be considered among the masterpieces of all times, and this manuscript is one of the oldest copies of Ferdowsi's immortal epic poem.

The Shah-namah was frequently illustrated in the Ilkhanid period, probably because the Mongols developed a pronounced taste for the epic during the 13th and 14th centuries.
Ilkhanid scribes and illuminators brought the art of the book to the foreground.

The schools of Mosul and Baghdad rivalled the best Mamluke1 work and may indeed have laid the foundations for it. Characteristic of this school is the use of very large sheets (up to 75 x 50cm, 28" x 20") of Baghdad paper and correspondingly large-scale script, especially muhaqqaq2.

Metalworking, which had flourished in north-east Persia, Khurassan, and Transoxiana, also suffered terribly from the Mongol invasion; however, it did not die out completely. After a gap in production of almost a century, which can be paralleled closely in architecture and painting, the industry revived. The key centres were in Central Asia, Azerbaijan (the principle centre of Mongol culture) and Southern Iran.

The combination of Persian style with Mesopotamian and Mamluke is characteristic of all the Ilkhanid metalwork. Mesopotamian metal inlay seems to have been inspired by Persian techniques, which it developed and perfected. Brass was substituted more and more for bronze, and gold inlay replaced red copper.

There was also a tendency in Mesopotamian work to cover the complete surface by minute ornamental patterning and human and animal figures were always well defined. However, Persian works showed a preference for a technique of inlay and engraving which avoided rigid and precise contours. There was also a reluctance to cover the whole surface with ornaments.
Towards the end of the 13th century, the Far Eastern influence is evident in both the Persian and Mesopotamian styles in the more naturalistic treatment of the plant ornaments (among which appear the lotus flower...) and the typically elongated human form.

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Tile mosaic on south-west of the entrance portal
to the shrine of Bayazid Bistami, Bistam, 1313.


Detail of the mosaic, entrance to
Dervishes monastery, Natanz, 1304


Mausoleum of Oljeitu, Sultaniya, 1304-15



Two cross tiles and two star tiles, Kashan, c. 1260-1270


Bahram Gur's Battle with the Dragon.
From the Shah-nama Ferdowsi, Tabriz. Second quarter of the 14th century.



Page from a Koran in muhaqqaq with
Persian interlinear translation and prophetic
traditions in Kufic characters around the
pages. Late 13th to early 14th century.

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The Safavids
Arts
During the same period as the Mongols and the Timurids, north-western Iran went through a different historical development. It was here that Turkoman groups fought with each other for power. The Turkoman Dynasty of the Kara-Koyunlu, or "Black Sheep" (1275-1468) was set up at Tabriz, and it was later replaced by the Ak-Koyunlu, or "White Sheep" (1434-1514). However, there was a third dynasty, called the Safavids (1502-1737), that emerged in Azerbaijan, and had as its leader Shah Ismail (1487-1524). He successfully conquered a vast territory which extended from Herat (Afghanistan) to Baghdad (Iraq).
The Safavid dynasty takes its name from Sheikh Safi-od-Din of Ardabil, who was the ancestor of the Safavid kings and spiritual leader of the Safavid Sufi order, founded in 1301.
The Safavid order was initially indistinguishable from the many other Sufi orders in existence in the Muslim world at that time. But Junayd, who became the head of the order in 1447, transformed it into a revolutionary Shi'ite movement that aimed at seizing power in Iran. Though the Safavid family itself was of Iranian origin, the bulk of its supporters were Shi'ite Turkoman tribesmen from Anatolia, Syria, Upper Mesopotamia, and Armenian highlands.
The Safavids were successful in bringing the whole of the Iranian plateau under unified control, and they made Iran a "national state" in the modern sense of the word. The height of Safavid glory was at the time of the reign of Shah Abbas I (1571-1629), who encouraged contact and trade with Europe and transformed his new capital, Isfahan, into one of the most magnificent cities of Persia. The presence at the Safavid court of foreign envoys and the growing number of merchants and travellers in Iran was later to have a great influence on the arts and literature in Europe.

The cultural growth was accompanied by considerable development in all forms of art. The Persian carpet, for example was at its finest during the Safavid era. Miniature paintings, Chinese and Arabic designs had an important influence in carpet motifs, and carpets became a major Persian export to Europe, India, and even the Ottoman Empire.
The Safavids adopted Shi'ism as their state religion, which had an important role in unifying the Persians against the strict Sunni Ottoman Empire. Two centuries of intermittent wars followed which produced only minor territorial changes.
By 1722 the Safavid rulers had lost much of their power leading to rebellions within the empire. A small force of Afghans, led by the Ghilzai chief Mahmud, took advantage of this, invading Khorassan, and capturing Isfahan.

Arts
The Safavid dynasty, of Turkish origin, is generally considered to have lasted from 1502 to 1737, and under Shah Ismail's rule the Shi'ite doctrine was imposed as a state religion. The Safavids continued the attempts of the Ilkhanids to foster closer diplomatic ties with the European powers, in order to cement alliances against the Ottomans.
As a result of this closer relationship, the Safavids opened the door to European influence.
From the description of Western travellers it is known that there once existed wall paintings; with battle scenes in Shiraz showing the capture of Hormuz from the Portuguese, as well as erotic scenes in Julfa, and pastoral scenes at the Hazar Jarib palace in Isfahan.
Inside the Safavid palaces pictorial decoration was used alongside traditional decorations in Kashi or ceramics.
Early Safavid painting combined the traditions of Timurid Herat and Turkoman Tabriz to reach a peak in technical excellence and emotional expressiveness, which for many is the finest hour in Persian painting

The masterpiece of the age is the Shahnama-yi Shahi (The King's Book of Kings, formally known as the Houghton Shah-nama) with its 258 paintings, which was the most lavishly illustrated Shah-nama recorded in all of Persian history.
Herat was the great Iranian miniature painting centre of the Timurid period, but in 1507, after its capture by the Safavids, the leading artists emigrated, some to India and some to the Safavid capital, Tabriz, or the Shaybanid capital, Bukhara.
One of the main innovations of the Bukhara miniaturists was the introduction of plant and animal motifs in the margins of their miniatures. It was in Tabriz, the other chief miniature centre of the period, that in 1522 Shah Ismail appointed the famous Behzad director of his library.

he Characteristic features of the Tabriz school can be seen in the illustrations for a manuscript of the Khamsa by Nezami; executed 1539 - 43 by Aqa Mirak of Isfahan, his pupil Sultan Muhammad, the Tabriz artists Mir Sayyid 'Ali, Mirza 'Ali, and Muzaffar 'Ali. Tabriz miniatures exploit the complete colour scale, and their compositions are complex and full of figures, which fill the space.
Shah Ismail's successor Shah Tahmasp, himself a painter, expanded the royal atelier. However, during the latter part of the 16th century, Shah Tahmasp became a religious extremist, lost interest in painting and stopped his patronage. This was the beginning of the end for the luxury book.
Many of the best artists left the court some going to Bukhara, others to India where they were instrumental in the formation of a new style of painting, the Mughal School. Those artists who remained turned from the production of lavishly illustrated manuscripts to separate drawings and miniatures for less wealthy patrons.

Some time around the end of the 16th century, with the transfer of the capital to Shiraz (1597), an official deregulation of the traditional code of book painting took place. Some painters turned to other media, experimenting with book covers in lacquer work or with full-length oil paintings.
If earlier paintings had been about man in his natural environment, the late 16th and early 17th century is about man himself. The work of this period is dominated by large scale representation of seedy dervishes, Sufi shaikhs, beggers, merchants.... with satire as the driving force behind most of these pictures. Some of the same artists leant their talents to an altogether different genre of painting - the sensuous and erotic - with scenes of lovers, voluptuous women, etc. These were extremely popular and were produced mechanically with the minimum of effort.

Two main factors influenced artists between 1630 and 1722; the works of Riza, and European Art. In the drawings by Riza, the outline of basic shapes is accompanied by an obsession with pleats and folds, which normally serve to emphasise the sensuous curvature of bodily form, but on many occasions, reach the point of complete abstraction. In a country with a powerful calligraphic tradition, writing and drawing are always interconnected, but at this time the link seems to have been particularly strong so that drawing takes on the physical appearance of Shikastah or Nasta'liq1 calligraphy.

By the second half of the 17th century, when Shah Abbas II sent the painter Muhammad Zaman to study in Rome, there was awakened a need in artists to find new ways of expression. Muhammad Zaman himself returned to Persia completely under the influence of Italian painting techniques. However, this did not lead to a great move forward in his style of painting; indeed his miniatures for the Shah-nama are in general banal and lack a sense of balance.
As far as architecture is concerned, pride of place goes to the expansion of Isfahan, masterminded by Shah Abbas I from 1598 onwards, which is one of the most ambitious and novel schemes of town planning in Islamic history.
In architectural decoration great importance was given to calligraphy, which was transformed into an art of monumental inscriptions, a development of particular artistic merit in the art of kashi.

Its chief exponent was Muhammad Riza-i-Imami who worked in Qum, Qazvin and above all, between 1673 and 1677 in Mashad. The death of Shah Abbas I in 1629 marked the beginning of the end for the golden age of Persian architecture.
The last decade of the 16th century saw a vigorous revival of the pottery industry in Iran. Safavid potters developed new types of Chinese inspired Kubachi blue and white polychrome ware, due perhaps to the influence of the three hundred Chinese potters and their families who were settled in Iran (in Kerman) by Shah Abbas I. Ceramic tiles were produced especially in Tabriz and in Samarkand. Other types of ceramics include bottles and flasks from Isfahan.

Textiles were greatly developed during the Safavid period. Isfahan, Kashan and Yezd produced silks, and Isfahan and Yezd satin; Kashan was famous for its brocades.
Persian clothes in the 17th century often had a floral decoration on a light background and the old geometric motifs gave way to the depiction of pseudo-realistic scenes full of human figures.

Carpets occupy the major position in the textile field, with key weaving centres in Kerman, Kashan, Shiraz, Yezd, and Isfahan.
There were a great variety of types such as the hunting carpet, the animal carpet, the garden carpet and the flower-vase carpet. The strong pictorial character of so many Safavid carpets owes much to Safavid book painting.
In metalwork, the engraving technique developed in Khurassan in the 15th century retained its popularity well into Safavid times. Safavid metalwork produced significant innovations in form, design and technique. They include a type of tall octagonal torch-holder on a circular plinth, a new type of ewer of Chinese inspiration, and the almost total disappearance of Arabic inscriptions in favour of those containing Persian poetry, often by Hafez and Sa'di.
In gold and silver work, Safavid Iran specialised in the production of swords and daggers, and of gold vessels such as bowls and jugs, often set with precious stones.

Safavid metalwork, like so many of the other visual arts, remained the standard for subsequent artists in the Zand and Qajar periods.

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Detail of a silk carpet from the Safavid period.



Safavid fresco (oil paint on plaster)
"Attendants at an Outdoor feast".
By Muhammad Zaman or his atelier, Isfahan, c. second half of 17th century


Shah-nama of Shah Tahmasp
Tabriz, c. 1525. The scene depicts the death of King Mirdas



A view of the eastern pier of the north iwan of the Imam Mosque, built in Isfahan during the Safavid period.

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But as I know medes(mads) were not persian and the iran history is not only about persians .
Please be carefull .

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Nader Gholi Afshar Gharakhlou, son of a cloak tailor from the Khorasan province in the north east of Iran, was born on 1688 in Daregaz. His father died when Nader was very young and the young boy had to support his mom. He was once kidnapped by Uzbek bandits along with his Brother Ebrahim and his mother. Nader spent four years in the Uzbeks jail, but he escaped with his brother when their mother died on captivity.
Nader began his career by joining the army of Baba Ali Beyg Koose Ahmadlou Afshar. In his army, Nader started showing his military abilities and was soon promoted as a general and married Goharshad, Baba Ali's daughter. He took over the power and wealth of Ali Beyg Koose after he passed away. At this time, Shah Tahmasp II Safavi, who declared himself king after the defeat of Afghans, heard of Nader's growing power and decided to take advantage of this new power. He sent Hossein-Ali Beyg Bastamy to invite Nader to join his army. Nader saw the opportunity and joined Tahmasp II's growing number of commanders.
Very soon Nader became the second most powerful person in Tahmasp II's court, and he soon decided that he has to get rid of the most powerful person, Fath-Ali Khan Qajar Qovanlou. Fath-Ali Khan, who was older and more experienced than Nader, felt the danger and started his struggle to escape Nader's trap, but he lost the game to him and was killed soon after.
Shah Tahmasp II, weak and careless like his father and grandfather, was happy with the peace in his court and did not care about who really controls his divided and anarchic country. When Nader became the ultimate strong man, Tahmasp awarded him with the title of “Tahmaspgholi Khan”, meaning “The Servant of Tahmasp”. A title with which Nader was known until his election as king.
At this time, the country was under chaos. Afghans, headed by Ashraf, controlled the eastern and central parts of the country, Tahmasp II was just claiming the country, without any actual territories. Ottomans, taking advantage of this situation, attacked and invaded the western sections of the country and captured Hamedan. Nader, both for his own ambitions and also patriotism, decided to throw the enemies out of the country.
For the beginning, he faced Ashraf and his Afghans twice, once in Mehmandoost near Semnan, and then in Moorche-Khort on north of Esphahan. Both times Ashraf was defeated and pushed back to Shiraz, there, in a final battle, Nader destroyed Ashraf’s army. Ashraf, escaping to Laarestan, was killed by a servant of his cousin, Mir Hossein, and his head was sent to Nader.
After finishing the Afghan business, Nader looked to the west (1733). In several battles with Ottoman’s, Nader defeated Ottomans and pushed them back to the older boundaries. Then he continued his attacks on Mesopotamia. He conquered Soleymania, Samera, and Karkouk, but was defeated behind the walls of Baghdad when Toupal Osman Pasha sent more forces to support Ahmad Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the city. Nader did not give up and came back with greater forces and this time put Ottomans under such pressure that they agreed to give the cities on the west of Aras river to Iran, in addition to Karbala and Basra on southern Mesopotamia. At this time, Russians, also getting afraid of this new strong man, gave back the cities of Yervan and Tephlis that they had taken away during the time of chaos.
When Nader went back to the now safe capital of Esphahan in 1736, he saw the weak Safavi king living in wealth and comfort and enjoying the goods of life. Nader, being aware of kings behavior, planned a trap for the king so that courtiers can see kings behavior with their own eyes, then he started a plot to depose Tahmasp and elect his 9 years old son, Abbas as Shah Abbas III. Nader became the sole ruler of the country, but finally he invited all of the governors of different provinces to a council in Moghan, north east of Azerbaijan. In the council of Moghan, pressured by Nader’s army, but also deciding partly on their own observations, the nobles unanimously chose Nader as the new king. Abandoning his “Tahmasp-Gholi Khan” title, Nader crowned as Nadershah I.
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When Nader became king, his first action was to pursue his ultimate goal of gaining more money and more territories. He turned to the sure place, India! For the start, he had to secure his back, thus still operating from Esphahan, Nader headed for Ghandehar and Haraat, the eastern most parts of the country. He invaded Ghandehar and Haraat just opened the gates to the ruthless warrior. Nader’s eldest son, Reza Gholi, captured Balkh, then with the support of Balkh’s governor, Nader conquered Bokhara, Samarghand, and then the rest of the Transoxania.
Now, being sure that his northern neighbors would not have the power to rise against him, Nader turned his attention to Kabul, then part of Mongol Empire of India. Nader invaded Kabul and did not waste anytime to continue to the south, he invaded Lahour and Karachi, and reached the gates of Delhi (then Shah Jahan Abad) in 1738. Mohammad Shah, taken by storm, was incapable of defending his falling empire, so he just opened the doors of the city. Indians, upset by their kings weak reaction, started killing Nader’s soldiers, despite the orders to stop the fight. Nader, always fast tempered, ordered massacre of residents and only stopped after Mohammad Shah’s request and offers of money.
After emptying Mohammad Shah’s treasury from all of the precious stones and money, Nader spoke in public and expressed his support for the reign of Mohammad Shah and ordered the coins with his name to be changed back to Mohammad Shah’s name. Then he made a deal with the emperor to provide him with a hefty amount of money each year and promise of support and help. Next, Nader turned back home, this time looking for a good place to store the treasures. He found the perfect place in Kalat mountains, just north of his birthplace in Dareggaz. Then he changed the capital from Esphahan to Mashhad, the biggest city in Khorasan.
From then he started again to conquer Transoxania, he killed the king of Kharazam and appointed Khan of Bokhara as the ruler of all of Transoxania. Then he decided to go to Mesopotamia and conquer that section, but he got the news of his brothers death in Caucasia in the hand of Lezgi (present day Daghestani) tribes. Nader reached Caucasia in 1741, and fought with Lezgis, with no real results, this war ended in peace and a treaty of cease-fire. This was the place that Nader first meat Dr. Bazin, a French friar who became his personal physician.
Next, Nader headed to Mesopotamia and fought with Ottomans and in a treaty agreed to occupy Najaf and leave the rest of the Mesopotamia alone. He then went to Shiraz and then back to Mashahad. For some times, he lived in peace, but once again he had to head out to war with some tribes that rebelled. One night, in 1747, near Damghan in north east of the country, two of Naders commanders decided to kill Nader, so they entered his tent and cut his head with a sword, this was the end of life one of Iran’s greatest and cruelest kings.
Although a great conqueror, Nader can not be considered as a good or wise king. He did nothing to organize the war stricken country. He did not consider will of the people in his reign. All of the money that he gained from his conquest, he put on a treasure in Kalat. At the end of his life, he grew so suspicious of others that he even blinded his own son Reza Gholi Mirza in charge of treason. Nobody was safe from his anger. His death was both bitter and sweet. It marked the end of a period of golden conquests and national pride, but it also was full of murder and suspicion. All in all, Nader is considered as a great and influential king, but never reaching the level of Kourosh with his unusual open minuends or Shah Abbas for his creation of a united and powerful country.
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Almost immediately after Nader’s murder in Damghan, the country fell into anarchy. All of Nader’s commanders started collecting forces and declaring themselves kings. The first one was Ahmad Khan Ebdali, one of Nader’s Afghan commanders. Ahmad Khan invaded Kabul, Ghandehar and Mazarsharif and declared himself king of Afghanistan, he later captured Harat for a short period of time.
At the same time, Nader’s nephew, Ali Khan declared himself king as Adel Shah (the Just King). The first action of this “Just” ruler was t kill all of his cousins! He killed Reza Gholi Mirza, Emam Gholi Mirza and all of other descendants of Nader who could be a problem for him. As you can expect, he did not enjoy his “just!” actions for a long time and was soon killed by his own brother who became Ebrahim Shah. Ebrahim Shah also gave his place to other adventurers.
Next, the nobles elected Shahrokh, the teenage son of Reza Gholi Mirza, Nader’s blind son, as the new king, but it was not long until a new person came along, Shah Soleyman III. This man, originally called Mirza Mohammad, was the son of Shah Soleyman I Safavis daughter and a clergy man in Mashhad. Encouraged by some nobles, he called himself the true heir to the throne and captured and blinded Shahrokh. In his own term, he did not last a long time (1749-1750). He was captured and blinded, and Shahrokh returned to the throne, with blind eyes! His “reign” continued 1796, when he was imprisoned by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar (see next chapter).
At the other side of the country, three local chiefs tried to gain the power. They were Ali Morad Khan Bakhtiari, Karim Khan Zand, and Abolfath Khan Haft Lang. They found a grandson of Shah Soltan Hossein and called him Ismail III. Under the name of protecting the “rightful” king, these three gained power. Abolfath Khan became the Prime Minister, Karim Khan got the job of the army chief commander and Ali Morad Khan became the regent. The three friends, as they came to be known, conquered all of the country with the exemptions of Azerbaijan (ruled by Azad Khan Afghan), Mazandaran (controlled by Mohammad Hassan Khan Qajar) and Khorasan (still under the power of Shahrokh). Then, as long as some people are smarter than others, Karim Khan and Ali Morad Khan got rid of Abolfath Khan, and then Karim Khan just illuminated Ali Morad Khan! In the process, “Shah” Ismail III just was not important any more!!! So, Karim Khan, becoming the only “regent”, decided to do the better thing and called himself, well, not king, rather “The Servant of the People” (Vakil Al-Melleh).