History of Iran

[Asalbanoo]

In A.D. 224 Ardeshir, a descendant of Sassan and ruler of Fars and Kerman, rebelled against the Parthian king, Artabanus V, and established the Sassanian dynasty.
Within twenty years, Ardeshir I (224-241) created a vast empire that stretched as far as the Indus.
His son Shapur I (241-272) continued this expansion, conquering Bactria, and Kushan, while leading several campaigns against Rome. In 259, the Persian army defeated the Roman emperor Valerian at the battle of Edessa and more than 70,000 Roman soldiers were captured.
For nearly four centuries, foreign wars and internal struggles gradually exhausted the Sassanian Empire and a new enemy, the Hephtalite Huns, defeated them. It was not until the reign of Khosroe I (531-579), one of the greatest Sassanian rulers, that the Huns were beaten

Khosroe took Antioch in 540 A.D., while Khosroe II, who had rebuilt the empire until it rivaled that of the Archaemenians, laid siege to Byzantium in 626 A.D.. However, the dynamic emperor Heraclius turned the tables, with the Byzantines invading Iran in 628. Khosroe II was deposed and murdered by his followers. After his death, over a period of 14 years and twelve successive kings, the Sassanian Empire weakened considerably, and the power of the central authority passed into the hands of the generals. This paved the way for the first Arab attacks in 633 A.D..

Arts
In many ways the Sassanian period (AD 224-633) witnessed the highest achievement of Persian civilization, and constituted the last great Iranian Empire before the Moslem conquest.
The Sassanian Dynasty, like the Achaemenian, originated in the province of Fars. They saw themselves as successors to the Achaemenians, after the Hellenistic and Parthian interlude, and perceived it as their role to restore the greatness of Iran.
At its peak, the Sassanian Empire stretched from Syria to north-west India; but its influence was felt far beyond these political boundaries. Sassanian motifs found their way into the art of central Asia and China, the Byzantine Empire, and even Merovingian France.
In reviving, the glories of the Achaemenian past, the Sassanians were no mere imitators. The art of this period reveals an astonishing virility. In certain respects it anticipates features later developed during the Islamic period. The conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great had inaugurated the spread of Hellenistic art into Western Asia; but if the East accepted the outward form of this art, it never really assimilated its spirit. Already in the Parthian period Hellenistic art was being interpreted freely by the peoples of the Near East and throughout the Sassanian period there was a continuing process of reaction against it. Sassanian art revived forms and traditions native to Persia; and in the Islamic period these reached the shores of the Mediterranean.

The splendor in which the Sassanian monarchs lived is well illustrated by their surviving palaces, such as those at Firuzabad and Bishapur in Fars, and the capital city of Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. In addition to local traditions, Parthian architecture must have been responsible for a great many of the Sassanian architectural characteristics. All are characterised by the barrel-vaulted iwans introduced in the Parthian period, but now they reached massive proportions, particularly at Ctesiphon. The arch of the great vaulted hall at Ctesiphon attributed to the reign of Shapur I (AD 241-272) has a span of more than 80 ft, and reaches a height of 118 ft. from the ground. This magnificent structure facinated architects in the centuries that followed and has always been considered as one of the most important pieces of Persian architecture. Many of the palaces contain an inner audience hall which consists, as at Firuzabad, of a chamber surmounted by a dome. The Persians solved the problem of constructing a circular dome on a square building by the squinch. This is an arch built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it is simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firuzabad is the earliest surviving example of the use of the squinch and so there is good reason for regarding Persia as its place of invention.
The unique characteristic of Sassanian architecture, was its distinctive use of space. The Sassanian architect conceived his building in terms of masses and surfaces; hence the use of massive walls of brick decorated with molded or carved stucco. Stucco wall decorations appear at Bishapur, but better examples are preserved from Chal Tarkhan near Rayy (late Sassanian or early Islamic in date), and from Ctesiphon and Kish in Mesopotamia. The panels show animal figures set in roundels, human busts, and geometric and floral motifs.

The splendor in which the Sassanian monarchs lived is well illustrated by their surviving palaces, such as those at Firuzabad and Bishapur in Fars, and the capital city of Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. In addition to local traditions, Parthian architecture must have been responsible for a great many of the Sassanian architectural characteristics. All are characterised by the barrel-vaulted iwans introduced in the Parthian period, but now they reached massive proportions, particularly at Ctesiphon. The arch of the great vaulted hall at Ctesiphon attributed to the reign of Shapur I (AD 241-272) has a span of more than 80 ft, and reaches a height of 118 ft. from the ground. This magnificent structure facinated architects in the centuries that followed and has always been considered as one of the most important pieces of Persian architecture. Many of the palaces contain an inner audience hall which consists, as at Firuzabad, of a chamber surmounted by a dome. The Persians solved the problem of constructing a circular dome on a square building by the squinch. This is an arch built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it is simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firuzabad is the earliest surviving example of the use of the squinch and so there is good reason for regarding Persia as its place of invention.
The unique characteristic of Sassanian architecture, was its distinctive use of space. The Sassanian architect conceived his building in terms of masses and surfaces; hence the use of massive walls of brick decorated with molded or carved stucco. Stucco wall decorations appear at Bishapur, but better examples are preserved from Chal Tarkhan near Rayy (late Sassanian or early Islamic in date), and from Ctesiphon and Kish in Mesopotamia. The panels show animal figures set in roundels, human busts, and geometric and floral motifs.

Many depict the investiture of the king by the god "Ahuramazda" with the emblems of sovereignty; others the triumph of the king over his enemies. They may have been inspired by Roman triumphal works, but the manner of treatment and presentation is very different. Roman relieves are pictorial records always with an attempt at realism. The Sassanian sculptures commemorate an event by depicting symbolically the culminating incident: for instance in the sculpture at Naksh-i-Rustam (3rd c.) the Roman emperor Valerian hands over his arms to the victor Shapur I. Divine and royal personages are portrayed on a scale larger than that of inferior persons. Compositions are as a rule symmetrical. Human figures tend to be stiff and heavy and there is an awkwardness in the rendering of certain anatomical details such as the shoulders and torso.
Relief sculpture reached its zenith under Bahram I (273-76), the son of Shapur I, who was responsible for a fine ceremonial scene at Bishapur, in which the forms have lost all stiffness and the workmanship is both elaborate and vigorous.
Considering the entire collection of Sassanian rock sculptures, a certain stylistic rise and decline becomes apparent; from the flat forms of the early relieves founded on Parathian tradition, the art turned to the more sophisticated and - owing to Western influence - more rounded forms then appeared during the period of Sapphire I, culminating in the dramatic ceremonial scene of Bahrain I at Bishapur, then retrogressing to uninspired and trite forms under Narsah, and finally returning to the non-classical style evident in the relieves of Khosroe II.
There is no attempt at portraiture in Sassanian art, either in these sculptures or in the royal figures depicted on metal vessels or on their coins. Each emperor is distinguished merely by his own particular form of crown.
In the minor arts, unfortunately no paintings have survived, and the Sassanian period is best represented by its metal-work. A large number of metal vessels have been attributed to this period; many of these have been found in southern Russia. They have a variety of forms and reveal a high standard of technical skill with decoration executed either by hammering, beating, engraving or casting. The subjects most often portrayed on silver dishes included royal hunts, ceremonial scenes, the king enthroned or banqueting, dancers, and scenes of a religious character.

Vessels were decorated with designs executed in several techniques; parcel gilding, chasing or engraving, and cloisonné enameling. Motifs include religious figures, hunting scenes in which the king has the central place, and mythical animals like the winged griffin. These same designs occur in Sassanian textiles. Silk weaving was introduced into Persia by the Sassanian kings and Persian silk weaves even found a market in Europe.
Few Sassanian textiles are known today, apart from small fragments that have come from various European Abbeys and Cathedrals. Of the magnificent, heavily embroidered royal fabrics, studded with pearls and precious stones, nothing has survived; they are known only through various literary references and the ceremonial scene at the Taq-i-Bustan, in which Khosroe II is dressed in an imperial cloak that resembles the one described in legend, woven in gold thread and studded with pearls and rubies.
The same is true for the famous garden carpet, the "Spring time of Khosroe". Made during the reign of Khosroe I (531 - 579) the carpet was 90 ft. square. The Arab historians' description is as follows: "The border was a magnificent flower bed of blue, red, white, yellow and green stones; in the background the colour of the earth was imitated with gold; clear stones like crystals gave the illusion of water; the plants were in silk and the fruits were formed by colour stones" However, the Arabs cut this magnificent carpet into many pieces, which were then sold separately.
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Sassanian art is its ornament, which was destined to have a profound influence on Islamic art. Designs tended to be symmetrical and much use was made of enclosing medallions. Animals and 'birds and even floral motifs were frequently presented 'heraldically', that is in pairs, either confronted or back to back. Some motifs, such as the Tree of Life, have an ancient history in the Near East; others, like the dragon and winged horse, reveal the constant love affair of Asiatic art with the mythical.
Sassanian art was carried over an immense territory stretching from the Far East to the shores of the Atlantic and played a foremost role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art. Islamic art however, was the true heir to Sassanian art, whose concepts it was to assimilate while, at the same time instilling fresh life and renewed vigor into it.

[Asalbanoo]

A rock relief beneath the tomb of Darius at Naqsh-e Rostam,
depicting the triumph of Shapur over the Roman emperor
"Valerian", and Philip the Arabian


Ctesiphon, Iraq, Taq-i-Kisra



Ornamental architectural pannels with pamette motifs
(from houses at Ctesiphon, Iraq)


Rock relief at Taq-i-Bustan
(showing the investiture of the Sassanian king Ardashir II.
The king (centre), is given a royal crown by Ahuramazda,
while Mithra stands behind the king in a supportive role)



Detail of hunters mounted on elephants
(from the decoration of the left-hand wall in the main cave
at Taq-i-Bustan. The use of elephants is evidence of the
close relationship between India and the Sassanians)


Silver dish, partially gilded
(showing a Sassanian king, probably Shapur II hunting stags.)

[peyman1987]

Thanks asalbanoo
It's essential that we remember our ancient civilization
We were the greatest empire in the world but today I myself don't see any signs of those Persians

Thank you

[Asalbanoo]

The Abbassid Caliphates

Abu Bekr, the first successor of the Prophet Mohammed, was head of the Moslem community from 632 to 634. He set about patching up the internal unrest between tribes. Then Omar, caliph (head of the Moslem community) from 634 to 644, initiated an explosive expansion of Islam. He seized Syria, then Jerusalem and finally Damascus in 638 after having defeated Heraclius. In 635, other Arab troops launched an assault on the Sassanian Empire, and crossed the Euphrates. The downfall of the empire was well underway when the Arab horsemen dealt the deathblow to the Sassanid dynasty and overran Persia first entering Ctesiphon in 637. Successive victories were to follow. They emerged victorious from the engagement at Nahavand in 642, which left the way open for them to enter the Iranian plateau. The conquest of Persia continued with the fall of Afghanistan (651) and then Transoxiana (674).



Arts

The Arab conquest in the 7th century AD brought Persia into the Islamic community; however, it was in Persia that the new movement in Islamic art met its severest test. Contact with a people of high artistic achievement and ancient culture made a deep impression on the conquering Moslems.

When the Abbasids made Baghdad their capital (near the former capital of the Sassanian rulers), a vast stream of Persian influences came pouring in. The caliphs accepted the Old Persian culture; a policy also followed at the courts of the relatively independent local principalities (The Samanids, The Buwayhids etc.), which led to a conscious revival of Persian traditions in art and literature.

Wherever possible, the cultural inheritance of Persian art was infused with new life, and customs thoroughly foreign to Islam were retained or newly introduced. Islamic art (paintings, metalwork etc.) was heavily influenced by Sassanian methods and Persian vaulting techniques were adopted in Islamic architecture. Few secular buildings of the early period have survived, but judging from the remains it is probable that they retained many features of the Sassanian palaces, such as the "domed audience chamber" and "the ground plan arranged around a central court".

The main change that this period brought to the development of art was to restrict the depiction of lifelike portraits, or true-life representations of historical events

"On Resurrection Day, God will consider image-makers as the men most deserving of punishment"

Collection of sayings form the Prophet

As Islam did not tolerate the three dimensional representation of living creatures, Persian craftsmen developed and extended their existing repertory of ornamental forms, which they then rendered in stone or stucco. These provided a common stock on which, artists in other media drew. Many of the motifs can be traced back to the ancient civilizations of the Near East: they include fabulous beasts such as the human-headed sphinx with wings, griffins, phoenixes, wild beasts or birds at grips with their prey, and purely ornamental devices like medallions, grapevines, floral patterns and the rosette.

More tolerant Moslem believers were less stringent to the portrayal of figurative art and in bathing houses, paintings of hunting or love scenes for the entertainment of the patrons seldom aroused objection. However, in religious establishments, only indistinct hints of human or animal forms were tolerated.

The Persians were quick to appreciate the decorative value of the Arabic script and developed every variety of floral and abstract ornament. Persian ornament is usually distinguishable from that of other Islamic countries. The treatment of the arabesque tended to be freer in Persia than elsewhere and usually, though by no means always, retained natural and recognizable plant forms. Palmettes, Frets, Guilloches, Interlacings, and elaborate geometric figures such as the polygonal star also occur.

Calligraphy is the highest art form of the Islamic civilization, and like all forms of art that came into contact with Iran, the Persians enhanced and developed it. Ta'liq, "hanging script" (and its derivative Nasta'liq) was formalized in the 13th century; although it had been in existence for centuries prior to this, and it is claimed to be derived from the old pre-Islamic Sassanian script. The written page was also enriched by the art of the "Illuminator" and in some manuscripts by that of the painter, who added small-scale illustrations

The tenacity of Persia's cultural tradition is such that, in spite of centuries of invasions and foreign rule by Arabs, Turks, Mongols, Afghans, etc., her art reveals a continuous development, while retaining its own identity. During Arab rule, the adherence of the local population to the Shi'ite sect of Islam, (which was opposed to rigid orthodox observance), played an important role in their resistance to Arab ideas. By the time orthodoxy gained a foothold, through conquest by the Seljuks in the 11th century, the Persian element had become so deeply entrenched that it could no longer be uprooted.


"In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate".
Almost every sura (chapter) in the Koran begins with this phrase, known
as the bismillah ('in the name of God') from its opening three words.
Here it is executed in some major Koranic hands:
early Kufic, square Kufic, eastern Kufic, Thuluth;(left from top)
Naskhi, Muhaqqaq, Rihani, Nasta'liq.(right from top)

[Asalbanoo]

The Abbasid Dynasty (750-945) established its capital at Baghad, near the old Sassanian capital. For a century, the empire experienced a time of unprecedented cultural, artistic and economic development, particularly during the reigns of Harun al-Rashid (786-809) and al-Mamun (813-833). Persian scholars and artists played an important role in this intellectual activity; from the very beginning of the Abbasid Caliphate, they had been placed in charge of the highest court functions, and a large number of Iranian customs and traditions were rapidly adopted in Baghdad.

From the second half of the 9th Century a period of decline began, and by the middle of the 10th Century, the Abbassid caliphs at Baghdad had no real political control over Iran. The governors whom the caliphs had appointed to administer the frontier provinces displayed a tendency to establish virtually independent local dynasties. Some of these included the Tahirids of Khurasan (820 - 873), the Samanids of Khurasan and Transoxiana (819 - 1005) and their offshoot, the Ghaznavids of Khurasan, Afghanistan and northern India (977 - 1186).

In 945 the Buwayids, a local dynasty from Gilan occupied Baghdad. During their 110 years of rule, the Buwayids seized all political power from the Abbassid caliphs.

Arts
Once the initial shock of the Arab invasion was over, the Iranians got down to the job of assimilating their vanquishers. Artists and craftsmen put themselves at the disposal of the new rulers and the needs of the new religion, and Moslem buildings adopted the methods and materials of the Sassanian period.

The size of the buildings and the techniques of construction in the Abbassid period show a revival of the Mesopotamian architecture. Bricks were used for walls and pillars. These pillars then acted as isolated supports for the vaults that were used repeatedly throughout the Moslem world, due to the scarcity of roofing timber. The wide assortment of arches in Abbassid architecture leads one to believe that their varied shapes were for ornamental purposes rather than structural requirements.

Of all the decorative arts, pottery made the most remarkable advances during the Abbassid period. In the 9th century new techniques were developed in which bold designs were painted with a strong cobalt blue pigment on a white background. Sometimes several tones of luster were combined on a white background, including red, green, gold or brown. Towards the end of the 9th century, animal and human silhouette designs became quite common, on a plain or densely covered background.

The pottery of the late Abbassid period (12th to early 13th century) includes:
Carved or molded lamps, incense burners, small floor tables and tiles with a turquoise-green glaze.
Jars and bowls painted with floral patterns, chevrons, animals or human figures etc. under a green or clear glaze.
Jars, bowls and tiles painted with a deep brown luster on a clear greenish glaze; the luster sometimes combined with blue and green lines.
Paintings from the early Abbasid era are known to us from the fragments excavated at Samarra, outside western Iran (approximately 62 miles north of Baghdad, Iraq). These wall paintings were found in the reception rooms of bourgeois houses and in the non-public parts of palaces, especially the harem quarters, where no religious function took place. A favorite location of such decorations was the domes over square halls. A good deal of the images have Hellenistic elements, as shown by the drinkers, dancers and musicians, but the style is basically Sassanian in spirit and content. Many have been reconstructed using Sassanian monuments such as rock reliefs, seals etc.

In the east of Iran, a painting of a woman's head, (late 8th or early 9th century) found in Nishapur has a strong resemblance to the art of Samarra; however, it is hardly touched by Hellenistic influences.

The pictorial art (miniatures) in the final period before the destruction of the caliphate is found mainly in manuscripts illustrating either scientific or literary works and was mainly restricted to Iraq.

[Viren]

Thanks Buddy

[Asalbanoo]

The Great Mosque of Samarra, Iraq, 848-852 AD.
Built on an open plan principle, this is the largest mosque of Islam (748 x 512 ft).
The most striking feature of the mosque is the winding minaret (Al-Malwiyya)
which is ascended by an external stairway.



The hypostyle hall of the very ancient mosque
at Nayin, east of Isfahan, which dates from AD 960.
The columns are of brick with decorative stucco, which bears a resemblance
to the sculptured motifs on the 9th century monuments of Samarra.

Ceramics are among the earliest examples of Islamic art
in Iran, and hold a place of special importance. This 9th
century plate is from Nishapur, and is decorated with two
birds on a white background.


Slip painted glazed dish from Nishapur, Iran 10th century.
The Kufic script on the border transcribes the following
saying "The beginning of knowledge is bitter to taste, but
the end is sweeter than honey. Peace be (to the owner)".

[Asalbanoo]

With the lessening of the caliphs' power in the 9th and 10th centuries, the feudal lords gradually returned to power, setting up independent principalities in eastern Iran; one of the most important was ruled by the Samanids.
Arts

The Samanid rulers were great art patrons and they turned Bukhara and Samarkand in Transoxiana into famous cultural centres.

The most complete documentation of Samanid art is to be found in its ceramics, and during the 9th century, the wares of Transoxiana were very popular throughout the eastern provinces of Persia. The best-known and most refined pottery of this Samarkand type is that bearing large inscriptions in Kufic (the earliest version of Arabic script used in the Koran, named after the city Kufa in Iraq) painted in black on a white background.

Figure decoration never appeared on these Transoxiana wares and motifs were often copied from textiles such as rosettes, roundels, and peacock-tail "eyes". On the other hand, Khorasan pottery of the Samanid period, known primarily from material excavated at Nishapur, did not eliminate the human form, and there are examples of human figures against backgrounds abounding in animals, flowers and inscriptions.

Unfortunately, practically nothing remains of Samanid paintings or miniatures, apart from a few fragments of wall paintings found at Nishapur. One such fragment depicts a life-size image of a falconer on horseback, riding at a 'flying gallop' in keeping with modes derived from Sassanian tradition. The falconer is dressed in Iranian style with influences from the steppe, such as the high boots.

As far as textiles are concerned, what have survived are several examples of tiraz (cloth strip used to decorate the sleeve) from Merv and Nishapur. Nothing remains of the vast production from the textile workshops of Transoxiana and Khorasan except the celebrated silk and cotton fragment known as the "Sudarium of St. Josse".

This piece is decorated with facing elephants set off by borders of Kufic characters and rows of Bactrian camels. It is inscribed to Abu Mansur Bukhtegin, a high official of the Samanid court who was put to death by Abd-al-Malik ibn-Nuh in 960. The fabric is almost certainly from the Khorasan workshop. Although the figures are rather stiff, Sassanian models have been closely adhered to, both in general composition and in the individual motifs.

[Asalbanoo]

Mausoleum of Ismail the Samanid, Bukhara
This domed square displays one of the earliest and most
spectacular uses of brick in Iranian architectural decoration.
Brick patterns appear inside and outside the building.



Ceramic bowl,
Samarkand or Nishapur, 9th - 10thcentury
This bowl is one of a group produced in Samanid times.
The decoration of these bowls and plates is considered
the finest adaptation of Arabic script to pottery.


Slip-painted bowl from Nishapur, Iran, 10th century.
A hunting scene with a distant echo of Sassanian majesty.


Part of the St. Josse silk, Khorasan 10th century.
The inscription wishes 'glory and prosperity to Abu Mansur Bukhtegin

[Asalbanoo]

The Turkish Dynasties
The Ghaznavids and The Seljuks

While early on the Turks had an important role to play as soldiers conscripted to the personal guard of the Abbassid caliphs, soon they were no longer satisfied with this subordinate position. Often they took matters into their own hands and elevated themselves to positions of influence.
In 976, one of these military leaders founded the Ghaznavid dynasty (977 - 1186). But the Ghaznavids were unable to prevent the arrival of yet another powerful force, the Seljuks. They derived their name from an ancestor called Seljuk, whose nomadic tribe was converted to Islam, and were themselves originally central-Asian Turks. Togrul Begh, sultan from 1038, first defeated the Ghaznavids, then sacked Isfahan in 1051 and went on to seize Baghdad from the Buwayids in 1055. Named protector of the caliph, Togrul Begh showed himself to be a vigorous defender of Sunni doctrine.
In spite of the presence of the Turkish invaders, this era of Iranian revival, beginning with the publication of Ferdausi's Shah-namah, constitutes for Persia a period of intensely creative intellectual activity. Biruni, the most knowledgeable scientist of the Moslem middle ages, was interested in history, mathematics, astronomy and the physical and natural sciences. The poet, mathematician and astronomer Omar Khayyam, author of the famous Roubayyat, and the philosopher and theologian Ghazahli illustrate the wealth contributed by Persia to the sum of universal culture in the 11th and 12th Centuries.
By the second half of the 12th Century, the power of the Seljuks gave way to local dynasties set up by provincial governors. One of these provinces, Khorassan was governed by the princes of Khwarezm (1153), who set up a kingdom extending from the frontiers of China to those of Afghanistan. In 1217, the Khwarezmi armies reached as far as the Zagros Mountains but were never able to consolidate their conquests before the arrival of the Mongols


The Advance of the Seljuks