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linked to any causal model of how IS delivers value to an
organisation ([52,66–72] provide examples of causal
models).
The earliest recommendations from Garrity [1] are not
widely cited but stand out for the exposition of the key
themes to be found in this literature:
1. Devote time to the [IS] program in proportion to its cost
and potential.
2. Review plans.
3. Follow up on results.
4. Facilitate ‘‘the management problems involved with
integrating computer systems with the management process
of the business”.
Researchers have explored the first theme to encourage
top management to actively identify and focus investment
on the most strategic areas for the organisation [2,73–75].
Other researchers have explored the fourth theme and
emphasised the need to ensure operational managers take
responsibility for delivering the anticipated benefits
[76,77]. Sharma and Yetton [72] highlight the need for what
they call ‘‘management meta-structuration”. They found
that as task interdependence increases in a project, institutional
context present increased barriers which can only be
overcome by mechanisms such as new support structures,
new performance control systems, new co-ordination
mechanisms and changes to performance goals.
Only Beath [78] seems to have made any significant
advance on Garrity’s four themes. She has found [top managers
as] project champions to sometimes be the most
important antecedent to a successful implementation
because of their ability in bringing about organisational
change. Morton [79] identifies the project championing
skills to be mobilizing public opinion, resolving stakeholder
conflicts and winning the hearts and minds of the
project team.
Little has been done to systematically capture these
insights and even today articles are accepted in leading
journals that find top management support for change as
a lesson learned [80].
2.3. Summary of literature
The literature review suggests the reason why the call for
TMS seems to be ignored is that top managers often have
no easy way to recognise good advice. A key insight from
the project management literature consistent with the
demands of corporate governance is that top managers
must focus on the realisation of benefits. However the
research on TMS does not focus on the realisation of benefits.
Some have suggested that benefits and the role of top
management has not been emphasised because it would
result in a loss of power for technical ‘experts’ [81,82].
The implications are very significant. Boards and top
management are dependent on the advice they receive
[83]. In one study, a senior board member made the assessment
that ‘‘with technocrats, the only three things you can
be sure of are: nothing would get finished on time, it would
always cost vastly more than predicted and it would never
do what it was promised to do” [84]. This is an extreme but
not unusual view and is significant because it fails to differentiate
between project management success and project
success. The quote supports the assertion that future advice
must be credible.
Generally only lip-service is paid to the need for TMS,
yet there are still many successes. It would be inappropriate
to suggest major changes in practice unless there is stronger
evidence that the current practice is wrong in its emphasis.
The highest priority must therefore be an evaluation of
whether the effort to challenge the status quo is justified.
This paper proposes to meet this need and evaluate the
importance of TMS against the other commonly recognised
CSFs. Project success will be emphasised over project
management success and defined to be consistent with corporate
governance objectives – ‘when [promised] benefits
are delivered and above average performance is achieved,
taking into account of risk’. Top management support is
defined as: devoting time to the [IS] program in proportion
to its cost and potential, reviewing plans, following up on
results and facilitating the management problems involved
with integrating ICT with the management process of the
business. These activities will be assumed to be undertaken
Table 1
Summary of advice for top managers by scope and success criteria
Scope of TMS advice
IS in general IS projects IS function
Criteria for success Realisation of benefits Doll and Vonderembse [75],
Garrity [1], Henderson [77],
Lane [74], O’Toole and O’Toole [73],
Rockart [76],
Rockart and Crescenzi [2]
Adams [104], Delone [105], McGolpin and Ward [67],
Reich and Benbasat [68], Rochleau [106],
Rockwell [103]
User satisfaction Bassellier and Pinsonneault [9],
Dinter [12], Freeman [102],
Jarvenpaa and Ives [6]
Ma¨hring [14], Markus [18],
Sharma and Yetton [72]
Technical or project
management success
Brandon [10], Doll [3], Izzo [11],
Lederer and Mendelow [4]
Emery [7], Schmitt and Kozar [13]
R. Young, E. Jordan / International Journal of Project Management 26 (2008) 713–725 715
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